In these studies the behavior of this special group was compared to listeners living in Western countries, raised and surrounded by Western music, in order to try and tease apart biological from cultural constraints. In a number of studies, a special effort was made to gain access to people living in remote areas, with little or no exposure to Western music ( Athanasopoulos et al., 2021 Fritz et al., 2009 Jacoby et al., 2019 McPherson et al., 2020). These include octave equivalence ( Jacoby et al., 2019), stream segregation/fusion ( McPherson et al., 2020), the association between major and minor chords and their emotional connotations (major – happy minor – sad: Fritz et al., 2009 Lahdelma et al., 2021), grouping and sensitivity to phrase boundaries ( Ayari & McAdams, 2003 Lartillot & Ayari, 2009 Mungan et al., 2017), sensitivity to meter ( Soley & Hannon, 2010), the role of simple integer numbers in rhythm perception ( Jacoby & McDermot, 2017), and the perception of consonance and dissonance in two or more simultaneously sounding tones ( Lahdelma & Eerola, 2020 McDermott et al., 2016). Many of these studies aim to better delineate the relationship between nature and nurture in the perception of musical concepts or building blocks, conceived, operationalized, and studied by Western researchers. In the last 10 years or so there has been a surge in cross-cultural studies in the field of music cognition ( Jacoby et al., 2020 Stevens, 2012). We also point to the need to adjust our experimental materials and methods to better suit these populations. We emphasize that the listening habits of the selected populations should be mapped more consistently in order to understand the statistical regularities in the relevant repertoires. Both studies show differences between the two groups with the IJs showing typical response patterns of Western listeners, and the IAs showing much less differentiation and only a partial internalization of tonal hierarchies namely, the differentiation between in-scale and out-of-scale tones. Specifically, we compared the responses of 52 IAs and 34 Israeli Jews (IJs) to 11 harmonic dyads based on intervals from the musical systems of both cultures, and to a harmonic cadence that ended with chords representing five degrees of closure. How do these various musical systems play out in the internalized musical mental schemes of their listeners? Have Western musical schemes been totally internalized in such populations? Here we ask this question in relation to Israeli Arabs (IAs)-one group within the highly understudied Arab musical world. The musical surrounding typical of most non-European/North American population includes some mix of Western, local art or folk music, and hybrid forms combining the two.
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